Quinn Scanlon

Internships in Archaeology, Heritage, & Museums
External supervisor: Rien Sanderse
Internal supervisor: Dr. Helle Hochscheid

Under the influence of the wind and the sea, the shifting beaches of Walcheren’s north-west coastline have at turns revealed and hidden a great variety of artefacts and historical sites over the past several centuries. Ranging from Iron Age briquetage pottery to medieval jewellery, from Roman altars to extensive burial grounds, these finds have captivated the fascination of beachcombers and professional archaeologists alike since at least the 17th century.^[1] A notable part of this body of finds is a fairly extensive series of Roman Republican and Imperial coins which has the potential to provide insight into the nature of the Roman presence in Zeeland. This report will examine the history of this coin series and how it has been understood over the centuries since the first discovery of Roman coins on Walcheren’s beaches. It will also re-examine the series in the light of the Classis Germanica castellum that is now thought to have been located at Vrouwenpolder-Oranjezon.

The first recorded coin finds from the beaches of Walcheren’s north coast were documented in 1647. A violent storm at the very end of the previous year wore away the dunes at Domburg and revealed the ruins of an ancient temple complex, including a series of altars to the goddess Nehalennia and a variety of coins.^[2] Although the altars were certainly Roman, contemporary illustrations of the finds reveal the coins to be a mix of both sceattas and Roman coins.^[3] From this point onwards the beaches near Domburg remain a significant find-spot for Roman coins, and coins are also regularly unearthed along the surrounding stretch of coastline between Westkapelle and Vrouwenpolder.^[4] Two dozen further instances of Roman coin finds are documented in two lectures by C.A. Rethaan Macaré, the keeper of the KZGW^[5] coin cabinet from 1828 to 1855, covering the period between the first finds in 1647 and his time of writing in 1854.^[6]

Many of these finds were stray coins, but Rethaan Macaré also mentions that a group of 22 Roman coins was donated to the Genootschap in 1799 by C.J. Serlé, which had originally been found in a stone pot along with Gallic or Nordic, Merovingian, and Carolingian coins by a worker on the beach near Domburg.^[7] Furthermore, Rethaan Macaré describes another group of coins uncovered at a series of cemeteries that emerged from and were reburied by the dunes at various points between the 17th and 19th centuries.^[8] At one such cemetery discovered in 1835 near the country estates of Duinvliet and Westhoven three Roman coins were found.^[9] M.G.A de Man, curator of the KZGW coin cabinet between 1889 and 1933, also discusses these cemeteries in a 1899 report. She writes that it was common for Roman coins to be found alongside Carolingian coins in the coffins, and records that a villager mentioned finding more Roman coins at a cemetery that was unearthed in 1866.^[10]

While many of the coins found along this coastline eventually entered the collection of the KZGW, it was also very common for the coins to remain in private hands. This is described by Rethaan Macaré as well as de Man, who explains that letters from the 18th century indicate that the public would often keep any coins found on the beaches of Domburg.^[11] Even after the combing of these beaches after storms was forbidden in 1855, the practice continued illegally and in the latter half of the 19th century many tourists would collect coins as souvenirs.^[12] Thus, while the KZGW is currently in possession of a substantial number of Roman coins found at Domburg over the past several centuries, it is unclear how many other coins are extant in private collections.

Several efforts to catalogue these coins have been made at various points in time. Rethaan Macaré’s lectures represent the first attempt, which was followed by an 1860 inventory by M.J. van Visvliet, Rethaan Macaré’s successor. This inventory covered all coins in the KZGW collection that had been found on Walcheren’s north-west beaches.^[13] Further lists of the Roman coins from the area in question can be found in the 1869 and 1907 catalogues of the KZGW’s coin and medal collection written by A.H.G. Fokker, another curator of the coin cabinet, and de Man respectively.^[14] However, these catalogues, like Rethaan Macare’s lectures, are not representative of the KZGW’s current collection.^[15] This is partly due to the fact that some coins mentioned in these two catalogues are now missing from the collection, and partly due to the fact that several new acquisitions have been made in the intervening time.

In 1940, for instance, schoolteacher and amateur archaeologist J.A. Hubregtse from the town of Burgh bequeathed his collection of Roman coins as well as various other antiquities to the KZGW.^[16] These are thought to have been found not on Walcheren but on the neighbouring island of Schouwen, where Hubregtse resided, though there is some indication that a few of the coins may have been found at Domburg.^[17] Unfortunately, it seems that the onset of World War II prevented the coins from being taken into the collection until later in the decade, when the curator of the coin cabinet of the time wrote that Hubregtse’s coins had “come under [his] care after a long wandering” and were in a “very disorderly state.”^[18] Another significant donation was made in 1948, when director of the Zeebad Instituut Domburg H.A. van Adrichem Boogaert gifted approximately 200 coins to the KZGW, some of which were Roman.^[19] These coins were originally owned by his uncle, H.J. Boogaert, who had been collecting from the beaches of Domburg and Westkapelle since 1855.^[20] This collection is documented by a photo album from circa 1920.^[21]

Since these acquisitions, two further attempts have been made to catalogue the Roman coins of Domburg, both as part of comprehensive surveys of all Roman coins found in Zeeland. The first was published in 1947 by A.W. Byvanck in the third volume of Excerpta Romana.^[22] As opposed to a full descriptive catalogue of the coins, however, Byvanck presents a list of references to Roman coins in the literature.^[23] The second comprehensive survey was created by J.S. Boersma in 1967, who catalogues the coins found at Domburg and Schouwen as well as stray coins found at various locations throughout the province and those that had been unearthed during recent excavations at Aardenburg in Zeeuws-Vlaanderen.^[24] In creating the list of coins from Domburg, Boersma makes use of the KZGW collection, its catalogues, references in other textual sources, and coins in the private collection of one A. Minderhout. This count produces a group of 100 coins; Boersma also provides a list of another 86 coins in the KZGW collection that he argues can be attributed to Domburg on the basis of their “appearance and state of preservation.”^[25]

Aside from a small number of fourth century coins, the series is composed of issues from between 125 BCE and 273 CE.^[26] Two particular periods of activity are identified within this time frame–one from 69 to 238 CE with peaks at 69-96 CE and 180-213 CE, and another from 260 to 273 CE with a peak at 268-273 CE.^[27] Another feature of the series that should be noted is the relatively high number of silver coins compared to copper coins, particularly during the first and second centuries.^[28] Records show that this pattern is not a recent development; Rethaan Macaré’s 1837 lecture states that most coins recovered along the Walcheren coastline were silver denominations.^[29] Furthermore, de Man’s 1899 article reports that finds from the High Roman period tended to be silver denarii, though some small bronze coins from the Late Roman period had also been found.^[30] It is of course possible that these proportions of denominations are not representative of actual coin circulation and are instead a result of the corrosive effects of the sea having a greater impact on copper than on silver, destroying the copper coins entirely or rendering them undesirable to collectors. Boersma, however, argues that the presence of small copper coins from the late third and fourth centuries in the series refutes this possibility, as if these survived corrosion the heavier and thicker first and second century copper coins should have been preserved as well.^[31] Instead, it appears the frequency of silver denominations compared to copper is a feature of coin usage on the Walcheren coast.^[32]

Based on these aforementioned trends, Boersma draws the conclusion that there is no evidence for regular coin circulation on the coast of Zeeland, and that the coin series of Domburg can be attributed largely to the activity of traders and merchants.^[33] The absence of copper suggests a lack of everyday domestic spending, while the silver coinage is what would have comprised the capital of traders.^[34] Furthermore, the peak in activity in the late second and early third centuries provides another potential connection to trade. The aforementioned Nehalennia altars uncovered at the beach near Domburg are dated to this same period of time–from 180 to 230 CE.^[35] The inscriptions on these altars reveal them to have been dedicated by sailors, merchants, and ship-owners seeking protection over goods or ships prior to travel; as such they are indicative of trading activity at Domburg during this time.^[36] The fact that an excess of coin loss corresponds with this period suggests that the coins found are associated with this activity.^[37] Indeed, it is widely accepted that the coast of Walcheren was a significant centre for trade. Its location on the North Sea at the mouth of the Scheldt river places it at the intersection of maritime and riverine routes running east to west, connecting Gaul, the Rhineland, and Britain, as well as north to south, linking the wider Scheldt basin and the Dutch Rhine limes.^[38] The participation of Walcheren in the trade along these routes is evidenced in the occurrence of pottery in styles from both Britain and the Rhineland along the coasts of Zeeland.^[39] Additionally, inscriptions on some of the Nehalennia altars list the various origins and destinations of their dedicants, including Trier, Cologne, Rouen, Besançon, Augst, and Britain.^[40] It is therefore clear that the Roman settlements on the Walcheren coast “functioned in a network of trade and transport.”^[41]

However, it has become apparent that this trading activity may not be the sole facet of the Roman presence on Walcheren. Indications of a military influence–namely, several roof tiles bearing the CGPF stamp of the Classis Germanica–have been found at the coast since the early 20th century, but until recently the possibility of a direct military presence has been either deemphasised or refuted entirely.^[42] Trimpe Burger concludes based on the stamped roof tiles that the mouth of the Scheldt was “strategically important” but nothing further, and even in 2008 Rummel argues that the two to six tiles that had been recorded at that point were insufficient evidence for a “prolonged fleet presence” on the island.^[43] However, several more stamped tiles have come to light in the intervening years and now approximately a dozen tiles have been identified.^[44] This, combined with the volume of building ceramics that have been attributed to the beach at Vrouwenpolder-Oranjezon seems to be irrefutable evidence for a castellum of the Classis Germanica at this location.^[45] This castellum would have been part of the coastal limes, a network of fortifications that stretched along the North Sea coast similar to those at the frontier zone along the Dutch Rhine, and would have functioned as a base from which the fleet could monitor the frontier region.^[46] A naval base at Walcheren would have been valuable given the strategic importance of the location, particularly as it is thought that the border between Germania Inferior and Gallia Belgica was very close-by.^[47]

The question that remains is whether the coin series from Domburg can be linked in any way to the military activity associated with the castellum. It is known that the military played a significant role in the distribution of Roman coinage in the provinces in general, as coinage would enter circulation primarily through military expenditure such as payments to troops.^[48] As Kemmers writes, military fortifications can therefore be understood as “hubs in the network of Roman coin circulation in the frontier provinces.”^[49] The possible influence of military activity on the coin series from Domburg is not fully considered by Boersma, but at a glance, it does not seem unlikely.

It is firstly important to note that although the Domburg coin series is attributed to Domburg, this does not reflect the actual findspot of many of the individual coins, which may have been collected from any location along Walcheren’s north-west coast.^[50] Thus the fact that the collection is labelled the ‘Domburg’ coin series does not preclude it from being connected to the military activity at the Oranjezon castellum.^[51] Indeed, there are records of coins being discovered at this location. In his 1854 lecture Rethaan Macaré relates how a total of eleven coins were found between 1840 and 1844 at the Oranjezon beach.^[52] Additionally, a number of denarii and antoniniani have also been recovered from this spot far more recently, and they appear to have emerged from the eroded dunes as opposed to being washed ashore.^[53] Therefore, while the exact number of coins from the Domburg series that can be linked to the Oranjezon beach is difficult to determine, it is clear that some coins have been found in the vicinity of the proposed castellum location.

Additional potential connections to the military activity on Walcheren can be seen in the chronology of the coin series. The earliest pottery finds from the potential castellum match with the first peak in the timeline of coin finds around the middle of the first century.^[54] Furthermore, there is an increase in pottery finds after the middle of the second century with a significant peak in the third century, corresponding with the significant number of coins from 180 to 218 CE and from 260 to 273 CE.^[55] These patterns may indicate that the coin series, like the pottery, correlates with military activity associated with the castellum. However, it is of course important to note that the chronology of the coins is unlikely to be entirely accurate in representing actual coin circulation of the time. This is due to the fact that it is constructed on the basis of the issue date of the coins, which reflects neither when the coins entered circulation in the area nor when they were lost.^[56]

Correlations can also be found when comparing the coin series of Domburg with the coin series of other nearby castella. Most significantly, the drastic increase in coin loss between 260 and 273 CE and subsequent drop in coin finds from after 273 CE observed at Walcheren can be seen across military sites in the Dutch river area.^[57] Although sites in the neighbouring Maas-Demer-Scheldt and Luxembourg-Trier areas identified by Aarts also see this decrease in coin finds from the late third century to some extent, these areas experience some recovery from this crash while the Dutch river area does not.^[58] This pattern is thought to be caused to widespread sociopolitical instability as well as regional sociopolitical circumstances in the latter decades of the third century.^[59] The peak in coin loss, for instance, can be attributed to the debasement and subsequent increased production of coinage that came with this instability, as well as military efforts in the western provinces to repel invaders.^[60] The following crash in numbers of coin finds across the Dutch river area is a manifestation of a regional upheaval which saw the collapse of the limes and other Roman infrastructure.^[61] The reason for this collapse is unclear, but regardless of whether it was the result of the invasion of Germanic tribes as Boersma proposes or a less destructive but still notable population shift, it is clear that Roman influence on the region decreased.^[62] Aarts concludes that in the case of the Dutch river area, the economy and coinage were greatly intertwined with the Roman military presence, and thus the disappearance of the fortifications led to the observed drop in numbers of Roman coin finds.^[63] The fact that the coin series from Domburg displays the same decrease in finds as the limes at the Dutch river area suggests that the site on Walcheren could be understood as part of the same network of military fortifications that had a significant influence on the local coin supply.

Finally, in considering whether the coins from the coast can be ascribed to the activity of the Classis Germanica, the relative proportions of different denominations must be examined. As Boersma notes (and as can be observed in the current KZGW database), silver denarii far outnumber any copper denominations.^[64] This pattern is unusual. Although soldiers may have been paid in both copper and silver, at the castellum sites of the Dutch river area between 50 and 260 CE it is far more common for copper finds to outnumber the silver.^[65] A certain number of gold aurei can also be expected from these sites, which are entirely absent from the Domburg series. A high proportion of silver coins is instead associated with rural sites and cemeteries, but even at these locations the percentage of silver denominations does not reach that of the Domburg coin series.^[66] Thus it appears that the composition of the body of finds from the coast of Walcheren is dissimilar to other military sites (and indeed most types of Roman sites). This may imply that these coins are best attributed to trade activity as opposed to military activity, as Boersma argues.^[67] The high percentage of denarii also implies an absence of regular coin circulation by way of everyday exchange, which would have required the smaller copper denominations.^[68]

With that said, it would be a mistake to understand military activity and trade as mutually exclusive options for the use of these coins. Instead, these factors seem to have been interconnected. The convergence of various trade routes and subsequent economic importance of the region would in turn make it a valuable region to guard closely, which the Oranjezon castellum would have facilitated.^[69] Aarts specifically argues that the economic boost of the late second and early third centuries that can be inferred from the Nehalennia altars would have in part been caused by the military presence along the coast.^[70] Additionally, the same waterways along which traders and merchants travelled are likely to have also been used for the transportation of military supplies.^[71]

In summary, the coin finds of Walcheren’s north-west coast cannot be solely attributed to the military presence associated with the Oranjezon castellum. It does seem, however, that there is some connection–the pottery finds from the Oranjezon beach that have been linked with the castellum and the coin series both imply the same broad periods of activity, and the coin series in some ways resembles those of other military sites in the broader Dutch river area. In other ways–namely, the proportion of silver to copper denominations–the coin series is unusual for a military site. Finally, it is important to recognise that the list of coins presented as Domburg finds in Boersma’s survey and the current collection of the KZGW may not be entirely representative of the actual body of numismatic material for this area, as it seems likely that a number of coins remain in private hands. It would be valuable to reattempt a comprehensive survey of the Roman coins of Zeeland to better inform future understandings of the forces that may have contributed to the patterns seen in the coins that have been recovered from Walcheren’s north-west coast.

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Bibliography

Aarts, Joris. 2000. “Coins or Money? Exploring the Monetization and Functions of Roman Coinage in Belgic Gaul and Lower Germany 50 BC– AD 450.” PhD, Amsterdam: Vrije Universiteit.

Berg, Joost van den, and Dianne van de Zande. 2024a. “Beach Archaeology: The Search for the Lost Roman Classis-Castellum of Vrouwenpolder-Oranjezon (Zeeland, the Netherlands).” Rei Cretariae Romanae Fautores (RCRF). https://www.academia.edu/124226840/Beach_Archaeology_The_search_for_the_lost_Roman_Classis_castellum_of_Vrouwenpolder_Oranjezon_Zeeland_the_Netherlands_.

———. 2024b. “Een Romeins Vlootcastellum Bij Vrouwenpolder (Zeeland)? Eerste Resultaten van Het FARO-Project “Beach Archaeology”.” Archeologie in Nederland 3:28–35.

Bland, Roger. 2012. “From Gordian III to the Gallic Empire (AD 238–274).” In The Oxford Handbook of Greek and Roman Coinage, edited by William E. Metcalf. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Boersma, J.S. 1967. “The Roman Coins from the Province of Zeeland.” Berichten van de Rijksdienst Voor Het  Oudheidkundig Bodemonderzoek 17:65–97.

Byvanck, W.A. 1947. Excerpta Romana: De Bronnen Der Romeinsche Geschiedenis van Nederland. Vol. 3. The Hague: Rijks Geschiekundige Publicatiën.

Clercq, Wim De, and Robert M van Dierendonck. 2008. “Extrema Galliarum: Noordwest-Vlaanderen en Zeeland in het Imperium Romanum.” Zeeuws Tijdschrift 58 (3/4): 34–75.

Estiot, Sylviane. 2012. “The Later Third Century.” In The Oxford Handbook of Greek and Roman Coinage, edited by William E. Metcalf. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Kemmers, Fleur. 2019. The Functions and Use of Roman Coinage: An Overview of 21st Century Scholarship. Brill Research Perspectives. Boston: Brill.

Man, M.G.A de. 1899. “Que Sait-on de La Plage de Dombourg?” Tijdschrijft van Het Nederlandsch Genootschap 7:6–173.

Mees, Bernard. 2023. “Nehalennia and the Marsaci.” Amsterdamer Beiträge Zur Älteren Germanistik 83 (1): 1.

Rethaan Macaré, C.A. 1838. Verhandeling over de Bij Domburg Gevonde Romeinsche, Frankische, Brittainnische, Noordsche En Andere Munten. Middelburg: De Gebroeders Abrahams.

———. 1856. Tweede Verhandeling over de Bij Domburg Gevonde Romeinsche, Frankische, Brittainnische, Noordsche En Andere Munten. Middelburg: De Gebroeders Abrahams.

Rummel, Christoph. 2008. “The Fleets on the Northern Frontier of the Roman Empire from the 1st to 3rd Century.” PhD, Nottingham: University of Nottingham.

Trimpe Burger, J.A. 1973. “The Islands of Zeeland and South Holland in Roman Times.” Berichten van de Rijksdienst Voor Het Oudheidkundig Bodemonderzoek, no. 23, 135–48.

Velde, W. op den, and C.J.F. Klaassen. 2004. Sceattas and Merovingian Deniers from Domburg and Westenschouwen. Middelburg: Koninklijk Zeeuwsch Genootschap der Wetenschappen.

Zande, Dianne van de. 2023. “Nodes and Networks: Military and Civilian Trade and Transport in the Roman Dutch Southwest Delta.” In Rivers and Waterways in the Roman World, 146–61. Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003277613-13.

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Archival Material

Archief KZGW, inv.nr. 71.1. ‘Ingekomen stukken en minuten van uitgaande stukken, 1927, 1935, 1940-1949.’ Scan 31.  https://hdl.handle.net/21.12113/4934A8B6F7D74891AC00647D2282C848

Archief KZGW, inv.nr. 172. ‘Inventory book Van der Feen II,’ nos. 2046-2817, 1934-1946. Scan 15. https://hdl.handle.net/21.12113/FF3AE412B25F48E2B2A7D17A9C83B696

Archief: Vroegere en Latere Mededelingen Voornamelijk te Betrekking tot Zeeland. 1949/1950. Middelburg: Zeeuwsch Genootschap der Wetenschappen (KZGW). https://tijdschriftenbankzeeland.nl/issue/arc/1949-01-01/edition/0/page/20

Fokker, A.H.G. 1869. Catalogus Der Penningen En Munten in Het Kabinet van Het Zeeuwsch Genootschap Der Wetenschappen. Middelburg: J.C. & W. Altorffer.

Man, M.G.A. de. 1907. Catalogus Der Numismatische Verzameling van Het Zeeuwsch Genootschap Der Wetenschappen. Middelburg: J.C. & W. Altorffer.

Visvliet, M.J. van. 1860. Munten Gevonden op hetNoord-Wester Strand van Walcheren.

Zeeuws Archief, Zeeuws Genootschap, Zelandia Illustrata, deel III, nr 436-1-2. ‘Twee Romeinse twee votiefstenen…’ https://hdl.handle.net/21.12113/BECEB9CB9EE84B6698A6C94736275BDD

Zeeuws Archief, Zeeuws Genootschap, Zelandia Illustrata, deel III, nr 470. ‘Afbeelding der verzameling munten en andere voorwerpen, gevonden te Domburg en bijeengebracht door den heer H.J. Boogaert in leven directeur der Zeebadinrichting aldaar.’ https://www.zeeuwsarchief.nl/onderzoek-het-zelf/archief/?mivast=239&mizig=261&miadt=239&miview=gal&milang=nl&mizk_alle=zi+iii-470

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Notes

^[1] Zande 2023, 147; Velde and Klaassen 2004, 5; Rethaan Macaré 1838, 3.

^[2] Rethaan Macaré 1838, 4; Velde and Klaassen 2004, 3; Trimpe Burger 1973, 139n22; Mees 2023, 1.

^[3] Zeeuws Archief, Zeeuws Genootschap, Zelandia Illustrata, deel III, nr 436-1-2.

^[4] Boersma 1967, 67.

^[5] Koninklijk Zeeuwsch Genootschap der Wetenschappen.

^[6] Velde and Klaassen 2004, 11; Rethaan Macaré 1838, 5-11; Rethaan Macaré 1856, 5-9; Boersma 1967, 68.

^[7] Rethaan Macaré 1838, 9-10.

^[8] Ibid, 5-11.

^[9] Ibid, 10-11.

^[10] De Man 1899, 32-34.

^[11] Rethaan Macaré 1838, 6-7; de Man 1899, 86.

^[12] Velde and Klaassen 2004, 5.

^[13] Ibid, 12.

^[14] Fokker 1869, 58-60; de Man 1907, 213-218.

^[15] Boersma 1967, 67.

^[16] Archief KZGW, inv.nr. 71.1 scan 31.

^[17] Velde and Klaassen 2004, 15-16; Archief KZGW, inv.nr. 71.1 scan 31.

^[18] Velde and Klaassen 2004, 5; KZGW Archief 1949-1950, 20.

^[19] Velde and Klaassen 2004, 15; KZGW Archief 1949-1950, 20.

^[20] KZGW Archief 1949-1950, 20; Archief KZGW, inv.nr. 172 scan 15.

^[21] Zeeuws Archief, Zeeuws Genootschap, Zelandia Illustrata, deel III, nr 470.

^[22] Boersma 1967, 66.

^[23] Byvanck 1947, 153-155.

^[24] Boersma 1967, 67.

^[25] Boersma 1967, 68.

^[26] Ibid, 68.

^[27] Ibid, 96.

^[28] Ibid, 68.

^[29] Rethaan Macaré 1838, 13.

^[30] De Man 1899, 85.

^[31] Boersma 1967, 68.

^[32] It should be noted that Boersma’s list has not been exactly reconciled with the series of coins from Domburg currently listed in the database for the Zeeuws Genootschap coin collection. This is largely due to the time constraints associated with this report. Due the complexity of references for the coins and a certain lack of clarity in Boersma’s list regarding which coins are expected to be found in the KZGW collection, an attempt to methodologically compare his inventory of coins with the current is not a simple task. Regardless, the trends that Boersma identifies in the coin series in terms of the main periods of activity and the proportions of denominations do appear to generally hold true, and as such his findings remain relevant.

^[33] Ibid, 67.

^[34] Ibid, 70.

^[35] Mees 2023, 3.

^[36] Trimpe Burger 1973, 140; Zande 2023, 152.

^[37] Boersma 1967, 70.

^[38] Clercq and Dierendonck 2008, 49; Zande 2023, 158.

^[39] Clercq and Dierendonck 2008, 49.

^[40] Zande 2023, 153.

^[41] Zande 2023, 154.

^[42] Berg and Zande 2024b, 30.

^[43] Rummel 2008, 170; Trimpe Burger 1973, 140.

^[44] Berg and Zande 2024a.

^[45] Berg and Zande 2024b, 30.

^[46] Zande 2023, 148.

^[47] Berg and Zande 2024a.

^[48] Aarts 2000, 200.

^[49] Kemmers 2019, 59.

^[50] Boersma 1967, 67.

^[51] For the sake of simplicity, this report will continue to refer to the coin series as the Domburg coin series.

^[52] Rethaan Macaré 1856, 7-8.

^[53] Berg and Zande 2024b, 33.

^[54] Berg and Zande 2024b, 31; Boersma 1967, 69.

^[55] Boersma 1967, 69.

^[56] Aarts 2000, 36.

^[57] Ibid, 213.

^[58] Ibid, 201.

^[59] Estiot 2012, 540.

^[60] Estiot 2012, 529; Bland 2012, 520; Boersma 1967, 76.

^[61] Aarts 2000, 40, 65.

^[62] Boersma 1967, 79; Aarts 2000, 40.

^[63] Aarts 2000, 213-222.

^[64] Boersma 1967, 68.

^[65] Aarts 2000, 53n173, 211.

^[66] Ibid, 63.

^[67] Boersma 1967, 70.

^[68] Boersma 1967, 56.

^[69] Clercq and Dierendonck 2008, 62; Berg and Zande 2024b, 31.

^[70] Aarts 2000, 207.

^[71] Zande 2023, 149, 155.